Publications
Details about Dr. West's award-winning book, "Violence in the Lives of Black Women: Battered, Black, and Blue", are available on her Book page. Below are selected journal articles and book chapters. Please see Dr. West's Curriculum Vitae for a complete list of all of her publications.
Journal articles
West, C. M. (in press). "Sorry, we have to take you in": Black battered women arrested for domestic violence. In N. Grigsby, K. McCloskey, M. Sitaker (Eds.), Battered women's use of intimate partner violence: Narratives, experiences, and research. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press (A monograph published simultaneously as Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma).
The purpose of the present effort is to examine the experiences of Black victim-defendants. To begin, an integration of both the family violence gender symmetry perspective and the contextual perspective is reviewed, with a particular focus on Black women's use of violence within heterosexual relationships. The concept of bidirectional asymmetric violence is then developed as a result of that integration. This is followed by an exploration of possible factors that may contribute to Black women's overrepresentation in the legal system, including the enactment of mandatory arrest laws. Because feminist scholars have used life histories to document the experiences of Black victim-defendants to good effect, a detailed description of the experiences of a one particular Black victim-defendant is then presented in order to provide a real-world example of such factors. Finally, strategies for advocacy and intervention are offered.
West, C.M. (2006). Sexual Violence in the Lives of African American Women. Harrisburg, PA: VAWnet, a project of the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence/Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence.
This paper synthesizes information on African American female victim/survivors. It addresses historical context, survivor traits, risk factors, health consequences, culturally sensitive responses, and resilience of survivors. It is also available online
West, C. M. (2004). Black women and intimate partner violence: New directions for research. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(12), 1487-1493.
African American women are at elevated risk for both nonfatal and lethal intimate partner violence (IPV). Accordingly, the purpose of this article is to review our current knowledge, with a focus on the socioeconomic factors that make this population particularly vulnerable to abuse. Future research directions include using more diverse Black samples, considering how living at the intersection of multiple forms of oppression shapes Black women's experience with violence, exploring the influence of historical events and oppressive images on victimization, and focusing on survivors' resilience and activism.
West, C. M. (2002). Battered, Black, and blue: An overview of violence in the lives of Black women. In C. M. West (Ed.), Violence in the lives of Black women: Battered, black, and blue. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press (A monograph published simultaneously as Women & Therapy, 25 (3/4), 5-27).
The purpose of this chapter is to review the many forms of violence in the lives of African American women, including childhood sexual abuse, dating violence, intimate partner violence, sexual assault, and sexual harassment. The first section will address definitions of violence, prevalence rates and risk factors, and suggest new directions for research. The second section is a review of the most common psychological sequelae associated with Black women's victimization. The final section is devoted to activities that promote healing, including therapy, participation in research studies, and activism.
West, C. M. (2002). "I find myself at therapy's doorstep": Summary and suggested readings on violence in the lives of Black women. In C. M. West (Ed.), Violence in the lives of Black women: Battered, black, and blue. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press (A monograph published simultaneously as Women & Therapy, 25 (3/4), 193-201).
This volume used a Black feminist framework to investigate childhood sexual abuse, intimate partner violence, sexual assault, sexual harassment, and community violence in the lives of African American women. This chapter will summarize the authors' findings, review their suggestions for intervention, and provide a list of readings and resources.
West, C. M. (2002). Lesbian Intimate Partner Violence: Prevalence and Dynamics. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 6, 119-125.
Researchers have been investigating partner violence for more than 20 years, yet there is a discernible absence of research on interpersonal violence among lesbian couples. Three aspects of lesbian battering are reviewed. First, the incidence rates and distinct forms that lesbian battering might assume are discussed. Next, the dynamics and correlates of lesbian abuse are highlighted. The concluding section focuses on suggestions for intervention.
West, C. M., & Rose, S. M. (2000). Dating Aggression Among Low Income African American Youth: An Examination of Gender Differences and Antagonistic Beliefs. Violence Against Women, 5, 470-494.
Investigated the prevalence of aggression inflicted and sustained in dating relationships for 171 low-income African American 16-24 year olds. Survey data revealed that more women were victims of choking, attempted forced intercourse, and hurt feelings. As perpetrators, more women reported making threats, throwing objects, and hitting their partner. However, men perpetrated more serious sexual and psychological aggression, including forced breast fondling, attempted forced intercourse, and making a partner feel inferior and degrading her. Women victims of sexual aggression, when compared to nonvictims, expressed more agreement with adversarial sexual beliefs regarding male-female relationships. More than one-third of the participants endorsed antagonistic beliefs concerning Black male-female relationships. Suggestions for intervention are presented.
West, C. M., Williams, L. M. & Siegel, J. (2000). Adult Sexual Revictimization Among Black Women Sexually Abused in Childhood: A Prospective Examination of Serious Consequences of Abuse. Child Maltreatment, 5, 49-57.
This study is a prospective investigation of adult sexual revictimization among 113 Black women (aged 19-31 years) with documented histories of childhood sexual abuse. The purpose was to obtain information on the frequency of sexual abuse in both childhood and adulthood and to determine which characteristics of the child sexual abuse were predictive of revictimization. It was predicted that younger age at onset of abuse (10 months to 12 years old), physical force, penetration, and abuse by a family member would predict revictimization. 30% of the participants were revictimized and physical force predicted subsequent victimization. This study also investigated possible sexual behavioral correlates of revictimization. Revictimized women reported more involvement in prostitution and partner violence. Finally, the reproductive and sexual health correlates of revictimization were considered. When compared to women abused in childhood only, revictimized women experienced more problems conceiving, repeated vaginal infections, sexually transmitted diseases, and painful intercourse. Suggestions for intervention are discussed.
West, C. M., Kaufman Kantor, G., & Jasinski, J. L. (1998). Sociodemographic Predictors and Cultural Barriers to Help-seeking Behavior by Latinas and Anglo American Battered Women. Violence and Victims, 13, 361-375.
Data from a national survey was used to investigate the help-seeking efforts of Latinas (Mexican, Mexican American, Puerto Rican) and Anglo American women who experienced battering by intimate partners. The findings revealed that battered Latinas were significantly younger, less educated, and more impoverished than Anglo women. Additionally, Latinas more often categorized their marriages as male dominated and their husbands as heavy drinkers. Bivariate analyses showed that Latinas who sought help were significantly more acculturated and more likely to have a heavy drinking husband than those who did not seek help. Although battered women were active help seekers, Latinas underutilized both informal and formal resources relative to Anglo women, with Mexican women least likely to seek assistance. When sociodemographic predictors of help seeking were analyzed, being youthful and Anglo significantly increased the odds of help-seeking efforts. Low acculturation, as measured by preference for the Spanish language, was the only significant cultural barrier to help seeking by Latinas.
West, C. M. (1995). Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel: Historical Images of Black Women and Their Implications for Psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 32, 458-466.
Identifies 3 historical images of Black women (Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel), and discusses the impact of each image on Black women's psychological functioning. Issues associated with these images include disordered eating, concerns about skin color and other physical features, role strain, the _expression of anger; sexual functioning, and victimization. Discussion focuses on the relevance of these issues to psychotherapeutic practice.
Book chapters
West, C. M. (2008). Mammy, Jezebel, Sapphire, and Their Homegirls: Developing an "Oppositional Gaze" Toward the Images of Black Women. In J. C. Chrisler, C. Golden, & P. D. Rozee (Eds.), Lectures on the Psychology of Women (4th Ed.) (pp. 287-299). New York: McGraw Hill.
According to bell hooks (1992), a Black feminist scholar, we should take an "oppositional gaze" toward the images of Black women. This requires us to critically examine, challenge, and ultimately deconstruct these images to reflect more positive and accurate representations. This is what I will do in my lecture. First, I will discuss why the Mammy, Jezebel, and Sapphire images were created, why they persist, and how they have evolved into contemporary images of, among others, the strong Black woman, freak, and gangsta girl. These images are rooted in history; shaped by structural inequalities such as race, gender, and class oppression; and further reinforced by the scientific, popular, and social science literature as well as the media, politics, and the law. Second, researchers have documented a link between the internalization of negative stereotypes and chronic health problems, psychological distress, and low self-esteem. Accordingly , I will discuss how the Mammy image can contribute to role strain, which is the challenge of balancing multiple roles, and to concerns about physical features, including skin color, hair texture, and weight. Next, I will discuss how the Jezebel image shapes perceptions of Black women's sexuality and victimization. Finally, I will explore how Black women's expression of anger is shaped by the Sapphire image. Strategies for resistance are offered.
West, C. M. (2005). Domestic violence in ethnically and racially diverse families: The "political gag order" has been lifted. In N. Sokoloff (Ed.), Domestic violence at the margins: A reader at the Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender (pp. 157-173). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
The political gag order has been lifted around violence in ethnically diverse families. However, researchers should continue this important work. Accordingly, in the first section of this chapter I will describe the four largest racial groups in the United States: African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and American Indians. In the second section I will review the literature and discuss recent developments. The third section will discuss how the intersection of oppressions may create demographic and cultural factors that increase the risk of violence in families of color. The final section will be a summary and suggestion for new research directions.
West, C. M. (2004). Mammy, Jezebel, and Sapphire: Developing an "oppositional gaze" toward the images of Black women. In J. Chrisler, C. Golden, & P. Rozee (Eds.), Lectures on the psychology of women (3rd Ed, pp. 236-252). New York: McGraw Hill.
bell hooks, a Black feminist scholar, believes that we need to take an "oppositional gaze" toward the images of Black women. This is what I do in my lecture. First, I will begin with a brief historical overview, which discusses why these images were created and why they persist. Second, I will explore how these images influence the psychological functioning of some Black women. Specifically, I will discuss how the Mammy image can contribute to role strain and concerns about physical features. Next, I will discuss how the Jezebel images shapes perceptions of Black women's sexuality and victimization. Finally, I will explore how Black women's _expression of anger is shaped by the Sapphire image. Strategies for resistance are offered.
West, C. M. (2003). Feminism is a Black Thing?: Feminist Contributions to Black Family Life. In The State of Black America: The Black Family Building on its Resilience (pp. 13-27). National Urban League: New York.
Black feminist scholar, bell hooks (1995) passionately declares that "feminism is a Black thing." Yet, some members of the African American community express suspicion and contempt for feminist beliefs. This essay is a review of feminist contributions to Black family life. More specifically, I will define feminism, review Black feminist history, and discuss the research on feminist attitudes among African Americans. The concluding section will explore how a feminist perspective can help us to understand diversity among Black families, gender and family roles enacted by men and women, childhood gender socialization, and intimate partner violence.
West, C. M. (2002). Black Battered Women: New Directions for Research and Black Feminist Theory. In L. H. Collins, M. Dunlap, & J. Chrisler (Eds.), Charting a New Course for Feminist Psychology (pp. 216-237). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
The challenge for researchers is to articulate the racial similarities in intimate partner violence without negating the experiences of Black women. This should be done while simultaneously highlighting racial differences without perpetuating the stereotype that Black Americans are inherently more violent than other ethnic groups. Meeting this challenge requires researchers to chart a new course. In order to travel in a new direction, we must first understand where we have been. Accordingly, the first section of this chapter will review the research on racial differences and similarities in the rates and types of physical partner violence across the relationship continuum. The second section focuses on new directions for research. More specifically, methodological problems may influence the research findings, and thus our understanding of racial differences in domestic violence. I will review these research limitations and offer suggestions for more appropriate research methods. The goal of the final section is to articulate a Black feminist theoretical perspective that better explains violence in the lives of Black women.
West, C. M. (1998). Leaving a Second Closet: Outing Partner Violence in Same-Sex Couples. In J. L. Jasinski & L. M. Williams (Eds.), Partner Violence: A Comprehensive Review of 20 Years of Research (pp. 163-183). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the emerging literature on same-sex partner violence. First, a brief description of the challenges and types of discrimination faced by this population is presented. Second, the incidence rates and distinct forms that gay and lesbian battering might assume are discussed. Next, correlates of partner violence and research limitations are highlighted. Finally, treatment implications and recommendations for policy are suggested.
West, C. M. (1998). Lifting the "Political Gag Order": Breaking the Silence Around Partner Violence in Ethnic Minority Families. In J. L. Jasinski & L. M. Williams (Eds.), Partner Violence: A Comprehensive Review of 20 Years of Research (pp. 184-209). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
This chapter reviews research on partner violence in ethnic minority groups, focusing on the 4 largest groups in the U.S.: African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, and American Indians. First, a brief description of each group is presented. Second, the literature on partner violence among these groups is reviewed. Specifically, ethnic differences, demographic and cultural factors that potentially contribute to higher rates of partner violence among ethnic minorities, and limitations of the research are addressed. Third, therapeutic implications, including barriers to help seeking, hallmarks of culturally appropriate assessments, and culture-specific treatment recommendations are discussed. Finally, recommendations for policy are suggested.
Other publications
West, C. M. (2005). Violence. In D. C. Hine (Ed.), Black Women in America: An historical encyclopedia (pp. 281-287). Oxford University Press.